There is a long-standing and extensive literature on the ways in which workplaces are organised, including who gets access to training and promotion, who gets to be involved in decision-making and the relationship between these factors and the quality of work itself (see, inter alia, Warhurst et al, 2012; Felstead et al 2009; Green, 2006; Rainbird et al 2004).
The concept of the workplace as a learning environment and the ways in which individuals can be said to learn in the workplace has also generated a considerable body of research (see for a review, Fuller and Unwin 2011).
Given the mandatory requirement for adult apprentices to achieve Level 2 in Functional Skills, the OECD’s findings from the first round of its Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) are highly relevant for our study. The findings showed how newly acquired skills need to be used and refined through use in the workplace. This aligns with research by Wolf and Evans (2010) on the problems faced by employees who are trying to improve their competence in literacy, numeracy and ICT, yet find they have limited opportunity to practice these skills due to the nature of their jobs. Similarly, given the central involvement of a trade union in one of our case studies, we note the findings of Wanrooy et al (2013) that unionised workplaces and those in the public sector are more likely to display higher levels of training. 2.14.
The overwhelming picture from the literature is one of employer discrimination towards older workers and a reluctance to plan for the demographic changes highlighted earlier in this review (see, inter alia, Martin et al, 2014; Parry and Tyson 2010; Taylor 2013). Loretto and White (2006) argue that there is an ‘enactment gap’ between the stated equality policies of organisations and actual practice and behaviour on the other (see also McVittie et al, 2003). Van Dalen and Henkens (2005) remind us, however, that some employees hold even stronger stereotypical views than senior managers.
Yet, again, we have to be careful not to fall into the stereotyping trap ourselves and condemn all workplaces. One study that has particular resonance in the light of our findings is McBride’s (2011) research on female workers’ access to training in the National Health Service. She highlighted the positive influence of ‘enthusiastic local actors’ (corporate staff, workforce development managers and external actors) who were facilitating women’s training and development (ibid: 543).
